Implications of Trauma among Male and Female Offenders

Criminal behaviour is believed to arise from a multiplicity of factors, including unemployment and poverty [1,2], low self-control [3], psychological issues [4,5], early conduct problems [6], childhood physical and sexual abuse disorder [5], and social bonding in child-and adulthood [7]. Social-structural influences like family conflict/disruption, financial resources, child-parent and school/peer attachment and abuse and neglect in childhood have lasting impressions, leading to multiple problems including delinquency and later criminal activity, substance use/abuse, mental illness and poor self-rated health [8-12]. The consequences of such behaviour include financial losses, injury, and death that together have significant personal and societal costs. Society also bears the burden of incarcerating and rehabilitating offenders; a burden that is not trivial. Direct costs of imprisonment in Canada approach $3.5 billion annually; in the US the cost is substantially higher, approaching $74 billion [13]. Adolescent delinquency, adult criminal behavior, mental health and addictions, and self-harm are all repercussions of the recognized physical and sexual abuses that girls and women are often subjected to during youth and adolescence and into the adult years. Physical and sexual abuse of boys is less documented. Historically, men have been the focus on research in sociology, criminology, medicine and epidemiology to the exclusion of women until the research community began to understand that gender does complicate matters. Yet, there remains scarce information on the repercussions of sexual and physical trauma of boys, despite considerable media coverage of indiscretions within organizations heavily focused on boys (e.g., the church, residential schools, and sports teams). This has perpetuated a societal belief that the problem is not common and the outcomes are not as severe among boys. The reality is very different. While depression and anxiety are not considered the domain of boys and men, reports of suicide of boys who have been sexually abused speak to the devastation of trauma [14,15]. Holmes et al. [16] conducted a systematic review of the literature on sexual abuse of boys. They found that the literature was sparse and highly differentiated with respect to methodology and definitions; sampling techniques were poor; and, few studies OPEN ACCESS